The Psychology of Culture

On the evolutionary, contemporary and universal dimensions of culture and identifying the main research areas in cultural psychology

The term culture would mean the entire gamut of activities, beliefs, lifestyle, habits, rituals, arts, ethics and behavioral patterns of a society. Yet despite the wide definition of culture, the elements of culture being too varied and divergent, it is not easy to provide a relationship between culture and psychology. There are two common ways by which the relationship between psychology and culture is studied, through intra-cultural psychology or behavioral patterns within a particular society and intercultural psychology or behavior and psychological characteristics between societies.

Intra-cultural psychology seeks to understand the cultural basis of behavior by studying the peculiarities of a society, its rules and norms and shows how traditions shape or influence the collective psyche of the people within the society. However in psychology this is simply considered as 'cultural psychology' a straightforward term denoting the study of cultural traditions and their effects on the psychology of people. This sort of categorization may be misleading as it tends to see cultures as fundamentally different units and highlights differences rather than similarities. Cross-cultural psychology focuses on finding universal patterns of behavior or beliefs that are common among people of all cultures and this is what has been described here as 'inter-cultural' psychology. The terms 'intra-cultural' and 'inter-cultural' psychology would be more conducive to finding a psychology that shows convergent patterns of cultural behavior among people across societies.

The Psychology of Culture

The psychology of culture requires further development in the areas of defining culture and in finding cultural roots that would highlight collective psyche or universal patterns of behavior. Humans are finally united by common emotions and psyche and this broader cultural psychology has been promoted by Carl Gustav Jung who focused his studies on the importance of deriving or understanding the collective unconscious with those elements or archetypes that are carried from one generation to another.

Culture has been defined as the accumulated experiences of a society as a whole that has been socially transmitted so the collective unconscious in Jungian terms would serve as a repository of cultural imprints that shape human behavior right from childhood. The three predominant schools of cultural psychology have been identified as having activity, symbolic or individualistic approach (Carl Ratner explains this well). The activity approach highlights social activities of a group, the symbolic approach defines culture as shared meanings and concepts or symbols. The individualistic approach highlights the interaction of the individual with society and through this, individuals construct their personal culture. But I would downplay the personal aspect of culture and suggest culture as mainly a group phenomenon akin to individual conformity in society so apart from activity and symbolism, culture should be defined by its beliefs, values and ethics. Culture is finally about shared activities, shared symbolisms and shared belief systems.

The story of the birth of human culture would be closely related to the story of human evolution as with the formation of tribes, humans learned and adapted to group behavior. Man was born alone but became a social animal primarily due to survival needs and the development of culture is thus rooted in man's own needs for security, safety and survival. Humans follow rules, norms, traditions of a society simply 'to live' and culture is about conformity. So the psychology of culture is also the psychology of conformity and even the non conformist in a way conforms to certain basic social and cultural rules and traditions.

As 'culture' represents a broad spectrum of human activity, cultural psychology should involve the study of:

Evolutionary and historical patterns of human behavior, closely related to anthropology Contemporary social trends (for example: celebrity culture, workplace culture, globalization) closely related to sociology, and The intra-cultural and inter-cultural patterns of behavior to recognize the universal elements in human cognition, emotion and perception

Thus there seems to be three dimensions to the study of culture in psychology - the evolutionary, the contemporary and the universal. The evolutionary and historical dimension of cultural psychology would have to be largely explained in terms of Jungian psychology whereas social psychology becomes an integral part of the contemporary dimension. The universal dimension for the study of cultural psychology uses behavioral patterns or cognitive psychology to gauge at how people are programmed to behave in certain situations and whether these behavioral patterns are common across cultures and if not, whether there are only culture specific behaviors.

Psychologists have claimed that there are certain culture specific behaviors and certain universal behavioral patterns among humans and it is important to understand whether it is possible to delineate behaviors that are culture specific or intra-cultural and those that are universal or inter-cultural. If such an attempt is made, then it is possible to say that ethics and values, legal structures, lifestyle, activities, rituals and beliefs can widely vary between cultures and these elements represent intra cultural similarities and inter cultural differences. Yet certain attitudes and worldviews or opinions, emotions and perception, as also basic human traits of say intelligence or imagination are not culture specific and may have intra-cultural differences and inter-cultural similarities. For example emotions and emotional expressions are common across all cultures so we all cry when we are sad and laugh when we are happy. We also have common attitudes and opinions such as supportive views towards honesty and we universally detest crime. This is however the universal behavior found across cultures although there may still be variations. The strong intra-cultural beliefs and attitudes that are not universal are usually related to customs rather than emotions, for example attitudes towards marriage and courtship, vary widely between cultures or even dining table manners differ between cultures.

Thus human emotions and expressions and behavior motivated by such emotions tend to be universal or inter-cultural and customs/traditions and human behavior motivated by customs tend to be intra-cultural or culture specific. Cultures in today's world are largely shaped by religious belief systems, political and social or economic systems and that is why culture seems to be almost inflexible in it roots as seen in rigid religious structures of society, although the changing cultural patterns are manifested in political and economic systems. If we provide an agenda for cultural psychology, the future research areas in the psychology of culture should involve

Definition of culture - describing and identifying the concepts and structures of culture and answering what exactly constitutes culture Identifying different dimensions of culture as they relate to cultural psychology - and studying the evolutionary, contemporary and universal aspects of culture Expanding research in the current schools of cultural psychology on activity, symbolism and belief systems as well as considering individual or personal approaches in cultural psychology Establishing the relationships between culture and anthropology, sociology, psychoanalysis and human cognition and emotions. Recognizing similarities in human emotions and expressions that are the basis of universal cultural elements and identifying differences in customs and practices

The psychology of culture is still a developing field and should try to answer basic questions on how behavioral patterns developed within cultures and why behaviors are similar or vary between cultures. The five areas of study listed above suggest the main problems and future directions in the study of culture within psychology and psychology within culture.

The Psychology of Culture
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Reflections in Psychology - Part I - by Saberi Roy (2009)
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The Psychology of Communication

On the limits of the process of communication and the central role of interpretation

Communication is about using symbols and in case of humans, using language, to convey meanings and ideas between individuals and it involves the act of evoking reactions from other individuals. Human communication is marked by intention and anticipation of the reactions and communication in humans can be verbal when mediated by language or non-verbal when no language is involved. Communication can also be direct when a certain pattern of behavior evokes a particular type of response or subtle and indirect when behaviors are not predictable or ambiguous and not even completely comprehensible. Thus communication is separated into certain distinct categories such as:

1. Direct and Indirect communication

The Psychology of Communication

2. Verbal and non-verbal communication

Any direct communication can be both verbal and non-verbal just as indirect communication can also be verbal or non verbal. Verbal communication can again be direct or indirect and similarly non verbal communication can also be either direct or indirect. So let's say there are four types of communication patterns in humans - verbal and direct, verbal and indirect, non-verbal and direct, non-verbal and indirect. Examples of verbal and direct would be saying things that are straightforward or unambiguous and with no hidden or incomprehensible messages. These are verbal expressions of emotions and ideas as they occur. Like when you are happy and say that you are happy, you are using the verbal direct method of communication to express your feelings. Indirect methods of verbal communication are using subtle expressions such as taunts, sarcasm, hints etc. that can have ambiguous meanings and do not represent expressions of emotions or ideas 'as they occur'. Thus if you are sad and do not say so but imply indirectly, then you are using indirect methods to convey your state of mind. Non verbal communication is about using cues, facial or bodily expressions, body language, eye or hand movements etc., to express ideas. This can be quite direct like say, hitting a person is rather non verbal but direct as it expresses anger just as crying represents sorrow. However non verbal communication can be indirect such as turning away your eyes from a person you feel uncomfortable with or maintaining prolonged eye contact with a person to convey a message.

Communication is the basis of human and non-human interaction and we can all communicate with a touch or a sound, a look or a symbol, a word or a sentence and also by doing or saying nothing at all. The body is an important interface in communication and I've discussed this in the psychology of body in which body language is shown to play an important role in communication. We communicate with our mates through intimate body language and sexual interaction is a very important communication tool in humans and also in animals. The psychology of communication will include the different elements or stages of communication in an individual such as

1. Absorption of external information through listening or reading etc,

2. Interpretation of the stimuli received, and

3. Reaction to the information obtained through behavior

The three stages of the communication process as in absorption or taking in information, the interpretation or deriving meaning of the information and reaction or responding to the information are facilitated by the following elements:

1. Absorption or taking in information - is through sense organs and we simply absorb the sounds and colors, the spoken words and all external data provided to us. Absorption is an objective process

2. Interpretation or analysis of information - involves using brain mechanisms and analyzing external stimuli as well as details such as expressions and subtle verbal and non verbal cues, so interpretation is a subjective process

3. Reaction or response to the stimuli - uses physical communication routes such as speech, language or expressions through facial and bodily movements. Reactions are the result of a subjective and an objective process. This is because when presented with certain stimuli we all have a set of predictable responses which are objective but depending on how we interpret the situation subjectively, the reactions might vary to an extent. Reactions can be imitative - you smile when you see someone smiling or it can be just the opposite as when someone tries to look at you and you try to look away.

This reaction or response evoked in an individual can become a stimulus for another chain of responses or the stimulus can be a completely separate event or situation. Behaviorists will usually consider communication as a stimulus-response pattern with individuals perceiving the stimuli and reacting to them in the form of communication. Freudian psychoanalysis suggests that communication is directly related to how we subjectively perceive the external information based on our own experiences. So 'interpretation' of external stimuli or the mediation of the individual mind is the most important aspect of communication according to psychoanalysis, although behaviorists will completely eliminate the importance of the 'interpretation' part considering communication as nothing but a series of mechanical 'stimulus-response' pattern. Thus according to behavioral psychology, we perceive an object and react to it via communication almost like a computer program. It sounds strange that the importance of mind and consciousness in communication has only been recently acknowledged in 'scientific' psychology.

The methods of communication are also equally interesting as humans communicate through the written word and the spoken word and through letters, messages, phone calls, personal face to face conversation, through glances and physical contact, through sex, and on a wider scale through seminars, conferences, news events, newspapers, press releases, books, brochures, and campaigning or propaganda. The newer methods of communication using information technology are via chats and chatrooms, internet and emails, text messages, forums, blogging and networking. Technology has opened up new avenues of communication and the world is now completely dependent on how far and how quickly people are able to communicate.

Communication is central to our modern life, yet it is a difficult and complicated process and a gap remains between the ideas communicated and the ideas perceived. This communication gap as it is generally called is closed only with proper consideration of all verbal, non verbal, indirect and direct elements of the communication process. So in a personal or business meeting the communication process involves not just presentation of the ideas of people verbally but also the non verbal facial and bodily expressions.

The purpose of communication is almost always motivated or intentional as we naturally expect a response from people we communicate with. In fact all communication is based on anticipation of response from others thus communication tend to have a direction or purpose. However the communication gap can create problems in the process and the purpose of communication may remain unfulfilled when communicated ideas are too vague or indirect. The vagueness increases when channels of communication between two or more individuals are remote or distal rather than proximal.

Long distance communication methods such as emails and internet, telephone calls etc. bring in new challenges to the study of communication as we are not able to see the person we communicate with, we find it difficult to 'interpret' the stimuli that we encounter. As I have noted in an earlier part of this discussion, the ability to 'interpret' the communicative stimuli is a very important part of the communicative process and the interpretation or derivation of the meaning of what we hear or see depends on our inherent need for analysis of all indirect body language cues, facial expressions and hints or subtle or subconscious processes. Human beings are intelligent and in most cases do not take all information for granted. The direct face to face communication provides us with a definite sense of what the other person really means and gives us assurance that our interpretation of the communication is correct. That is why the face to face interviewing process still remains the most popular method of communication in a selection process. All online communication and information on the internet are thus prone to misinterpretation as we are not able to interpret the information using the non verbal cues or expressions that are an essential part of the communication process. The communication gap is thus the gap of interpretation as despite a lot of information there is certain dearth of essential information and our mind recognizes the communication process as incomplete. You may chat with a person online for several hours in a day but unless you are able to see or hear his or her facial and bodily expressions, you can never be assured that the communication process is completely authentic. Of course, modern devices such as the webcam have greatly improved the communication process. Yet it is also true that even if we have all the essential cues of communication, the very fact that we have to interpret the information received subjectively, can suggest the possibility of a communication gap.

In this discussion then, I simply pointed out that the three stages of communication comprise of certain essential elements and a communication gap is inherent in the process of interpretation either because of our own limitations or due to limitations of technology.

The Psychology of Communication
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Reflections in Psychology - Part I - by Saberi Roy (2009)
http://www.lulu.com/content/5865445

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Your Personality Based on Blood Type

Believe it or not, blood type can influence someone's personality. Most of you who like surfing the Internet might have known about this information, but it is still essential for you to know about this fact.

Blood type A

People with blood type A are usually serious, patient, and cool. They are also emphatic, certifiable, and believable although they are stubborn. Before they do something, they usually think first and plan it in detail. Indeed, they like harmony, peace and organization.

Your Personality Based on Blood Type

They do everything seriously and consistently, and make themselves appropriately. That is why, they will try not to hurt anyone with their words or speak unnecessarily. But, they can stand apart from other people. They also suppressed their feeling, so they look rigid although they still have weaknesses, such as nervous, scary, and many more. They lean to surround themselves with the same characteristic people.

Blood Type B

People with blood type B tend to be curious and interested in everything. They also lean to have many hobbies. If they are interested in something, they will be buoyant, but unfortunately they will be bored fast. However, they can choose the most important thing for them to do.

They lean to want to be number one in anything rather than just to be average people. But, they usually ignore another activity if they have focused on a certain activity. In other words, they cannot do some activities at the same time.

They look cheerful, enthusiastic, and bright. But, they are actually not like their appearances. Indeed, they are antisocial with many people. They are rugged individualists who are straightforward and like to do things their own way. Unluckily, their insistence on being independent can sometimes go too far and become a weakness.

Blood type O

People with blood type O usually have a big role in motivating the passion of their groups and stimulating the harmonious relationship among the group members. They look like people who accept and do something calmly.

They are smart to cover up their feelings, so they look like people who are always cheerful, peaceful, and do not have problem at all. But, if they cannot bear it, they will surely find out a place or someone to talk.

They are kind, often do kindness, and are not reluctant to get out of their money to other people. They are actually stubborn too and have their own opinions about anything in confidence, but they are also flexible and easily accept new things. No wonder that they lean to be influenced easily by other people. Look like people who are temperate and believable, but they also often make big mistakes because of their careless characteristic. However, their characteristics make them lovable.

Blood type AB

People with blood type AB have sensitive and soft feeling. They have profound interests with other people's feelings and always face other people with care and beware. However, they also tough with themselves and people close to them. Thus, they lean to have two personalities.

They are usually grudge people and think something too deep. Fortunately, they have a lot of friends, but they also need time to be lonely to think their own problems.

Your Personality Based on Blood Type
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What is Social Psychology?

Social psychology is concerned with explaining how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are influenced by others. This area of psychology also deals with how people interact with others in social settings. Just from everyday exposure, you may remember terms like conformity, social status, motivation, and prejudice. These are all key concepts associated with social psychology. There are also some basic aspects of social behavior that play a large role in how we view ourselves as individuals.

Examples of research questions that appeal to social psychologists: How do teacher ratings websites affect perceptions of instructor effectiveness? How13740183 does gender affect perceptions of effective political leadership? Do people carry out instructions from authority figures even if it violates moral principles? Or, as the title of a national bestseller asks: "Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together In the Cafeteria?" And even still, in terms of professional applications, many companies rely on social psychology to influence consumers to develop company loyalty or buy their products and services.

If you are interested in attitude change in groups or how social identity affects human behavior, then social psychology would be a great area for graduate study. However, to further hone in on your interests, review some current research in the field. Your university library should have a collection of academic journals, such as Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Flip through a couple of issues and note which studies capture your attention. These are potential areas of research interest. Also take note of the author and their university affiliation. Just like that, you can identify a potential faculty mentor and quite possibly, the right graduate program for you!

What is Social Psychology?

What is Social Psychology?
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If this has been helpful, please visit: Get into grad school.

Visit the definitive source of information on applying to Ph.D. programs in psychology: Applying to graduate school.

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Top 3 Tricks of Psychology to Make Girls Fall For You In a Flash

The truth is this: seduction hardly has anything to do with money or looks. On the other hand, it has to do with how great you can make women feel when they are around you. Keep reading to find out highly effective tactics and tricks that you could put to use to make women fall for you in mere seconds.

Top 3 Tricks of Psychology to Make Girls Fall for You - in a Flash

Trick #1: Trigger the Auras of Mystery. Let her know that you have realized something special about her that is incredibly interesting, but you can't tell her what it is. This powerful trick will make women think about you constantly.

Top 3 Tricks of Psychology to Make Girls Fall For You In a Flash

This happens to work since it will increase the female curiosity level, while simultaneously boosting her attraction levels towards you. She will stay in you, if you remain being the mysterious guy that you are in her eyes.

Trick #2: Dump the Ego. Women tend to be used to getting every attention for her self. So, you need to reduce her levels of ego a little bit. Speak to her friends and pretend like she's not there whenever you are with an entire group. This will ignite her feelings of jealous while simultaneously making her try to get your attention.

Keep in mind that anything rare happens to be valuable. Always make yourself more unavailable to make your overall value skyrocket like never before.

Trick #3: Use Covert Tactics. Using a covert tactic called fractionation, regular men have been known to be able to make women fall in love with them - in 15 minutes or even less. This tactic uses conversational tricks to make a woman feel emotionally engaged (and dependent) on you - and as a result she will often do anything you tell her to.

Top 3 Tricks of Psychology to Make Girls Fall For You In a Flash
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However, before you use this technique, you must heed this warning...

Fractionation is considered as a 'dark art' tactic which is the basis of covert seduction, and while controversial, it is known to be one of the most effective tactics ever invented by underground seducers. It is described step-by-step in the Fractionation Formula system (as shown at this website - http://www.FractionationFormula.com).

Note: While I personally vouch for the effectiveness of this tactic, care must be taken as it could be dangerous in the hands of people with bad intentions. As Mr Spidey once said... great powers come with great responsibility. :)

So, if you want super quick success with women (and will do so ethically), then click on this following link to download The Fractionation Formula for free - http://www.FractionationFormula.com

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The Psychology of Attraction

On why the psychology of attraction is a social, evolutionary, physical, biological and personal process as well...

The psychology of attraction is a very intriguing topic effectively determining the laws of courtship, the rules of getting drawn to certain people, the basis of friendships and also the success of relationships. Attraction is a social, biological and evolutionary process. We are attracted to certain people due to social reasons as we may be able to establish social rapport with such individuals. When there is a reinforcement of positive social responses between certain individuals with repeated interaction, feelings of liking and lust, attraction may develop along with a sense of being comfortable with each other developing a sense of familiarity. However just as a sense of familiarity gives rise to attraction, in some cases strangeness or the urge to know someone can also lead to attraction.

Thus as far as social dimensions of attraction are concerned there are two exactly opposite reasons for which one may get attracted to another person. One of these is a sense of familiarity or feeling comfortable with the other person and the other is a feeling of mystery or strangeness that can draw us to other people and both these social reasons are equally powerful in the psychology of attraction. Attraction however happens across physical and personal dimensions as well and we get attracted to people physically again for two reasons - either because the other person looks similar to us or our family members again bringing in a sense of familiarity or because the other person looks completely different, exactly opposite to how we look and this difference attracts us. Thus if you are a woman with very feminine features, you might get attracted to men who also have soft features or to men who have extremely rough masculine facial features and body structure.

The Psychology of Attraction

In most cases however couples end up dating someone who look similar or have similar levels of attractiveness or simply resemble family members so there is a sense of comfort or familiarity when dating the other person. This could have a narcissistic explanation as we all love ourselves first and can thus only fall in love with people who look similar. The similarity can also be on personal dimensions of taste and likings, of preferences, of race and religions and of similar social backgrounds. However sometimes a person of completely different taste, religion or background can intrigue us and let's say these two different approaches to attraction can work equally in some people although in some others one would dominate the other. This suggests that some people are attracted to similar people and dissimilar people equally whereas some others are attracted only to similar ones. Although very few individuals get attracted to completely dissimilar people and these people would be seekers of novelty. In some cases if you are a highly artistic individual and kind of a dreamer, you might get attracted to someone more practical and if you are high strung, you would like someone calm and controlled. Although a reflection of your own self in the other is again attractive so despite differences some similar traits between individuals can lead to higher levels of attraction. It is that unconsciously we are attracted to individuals 'who are like us but not exactly similar and who are opposite to us but not exactly opposite'. When two individuals are too similar or too different the attraction may die out as soon as it happened and does not bring about lasting relationships.

There are evolutionary reasons for which one person is considered more attractive than others and the traditional explanation is that usually men are considered attractive when they have power, wealth and social status and women are judged on the basis of their looks which represent fertility. This is because she is the one who gives birth to the progeny and he is the one who provides for them. However with changes in social structure and men and women taking up similar roles, in future women and men could be equally judged in terms of looks, youth, fertility and/or social status, success, wealth etc.

Younger women may get attracted to older men and vice versa as also older women get attracted to younger men and vice versa and this can be explained with the Oedipus and Electra complex in Freudian and Jungian psychoanalysis that explains why young men can fall in love with mother figures and young women idolize father figures. Men who are extremely attached to their mothers, may show dependence towards mature females and harbor some sort of fascination for married women in some cases. Women who have faced molestation or abuse at a younger age from male members may develop intense attraction or repulsion for similar men at a later stage in life. In some cases young men and women can develop an attraction for people who are similar to celebrities/ famous people of their choice. Sometimes these are not so constructive forms of attraction and may not lead to real love or lasting relationships. So these are best psychoanalyzed and understood so that such feelings of lust could be best channeled towards other directions.

The laws of attraction can have similar explanations in case of homosexuality, heterosexuality or bisexuality. A homosexual usually looks for similarity in the other partner because homosexuality is largely based on narcissism. A bisexual will get attracted to both similar and dissimilar individuals. Strange that it may sound, repulsion can also lead to attraction because the opposite is intriguing as well so if a person develops strong hatred or repulsion for another person of the same or opposite sex, a sexual attraction can precede or follow in some cases. This will however have more to do with complex emotions of love and hate which will require a separate discussion.

Finally how do we understand or express our attraction? This of course is the science of dating and courtship which is discussed by all dating gurus and agony aunts. However expressing attraction is a complex process although this is very important and can actually lead to the breaking or making of a relationship. In most cases, men express their attraction towards a woman more aggressively and yet indirectly by focusing on himself - he might try to show off his car or brag about his qualifications and status. Men tend to 'internalize', it's always 'me' or the 'I' factor that comes first. When a man says, 'Look I have no time, I have meetings to attend', he is only trying to suggest, 'Hey, I'm a big guy, I'm worth dating'. Most women will consider this sort of boasting as immature but women have their own way of suggesting that they are attracted. Usually women tend to 'externalize' and a woman doesn't try to point out to herself but uses her dress, her style, her external appearance and sometimes flirtatious gestures directed to the man to show that she is attracted, women are sometimes more direct and obvious in their admiration. Men might scratch their head to understand why women use so much make-up or dress to impress and show off their bodies. This is because women use these tools when they are attracted. She will rather say, 'I am free tomorrow night' suggesting 'Hey, I want to meet up with you'. Of course there are other traditional signs of the lover's gaze, blushing, smiling or laughing too hard, spilling drinks or messing up, nervousness, discomfort, restlessness that all suggest signs of attraction. Usually these signs of attraction are rather unconsciously expressed suggesting changes in the brain when we are attracted. Love is explained by the physiochemical changes in our body and attraction being the first stage, some related changes also occur with enhanced hormonal activity. Attraction is thus largely a biological and psychological process expressed socially considering evolutionary perspectives and is based completely on physical and personal similarities and/or dissimilarities. The psychology of attraction can be used to understand whom we can potentially get attracted to and why and what we should do or not do (!) about it.

The Psychology of Attraction
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Reflections in Psychology - Part I - by Saberi Roy (2009)
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